Branches of Philosophy Essay Example for Free

Branches of Philosophy Essay Metaphysics is a traditional branch of philosophy concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world, although the term is not easily defined. Traditionally, metaphysics attempts to answer two basic questions in the broadest possible terms: What is there? What is it like? A person who studies metaphysics is called a metaphysicist or a metaphysician. The metaphysician attempts to clarify the fundamental notions by which people understand the world, e. g. , existence, objects and their properties, space and time, cause and effect, and possibility. A central branch of metaphysics is ontology, the investigation into the basic categories of being and how they relate to each other. Another central branch of metaphysics is cosmology, the study of the totality of all phenomena within the universe. Prior to the modern history of science, scientific questions were addressed as a part of metaphysics known as natural philosophy. Originally, the term science (Latin scientia) simply meant knowledge. The scientific method, however, transformed natural philosophy into an empirical activity deriving from experiment unlike the rest of philosophy. By the end of the 18th century, it had begun to be called science to distinguish it from philosophy. Thereafter, metaphysics denoted philosophical enquiry of a non-empirical character into the nature of existence. [6] Some philosophers of science, such as the neo-positivists, say that natural science rejects the study of metaphysics, while other philosophers of science strongly disagree. areas of philosophy, and most other philosophical schools turn back to it for basic definition. In that respect, the term metaphysics is a broad one, encompassing the philosophical ideas of cosmology and ontology. Metaphysics or First Philosophy The term â€Å"metaphysics† comes from Greek, meaning â€Å"after the Physics†. Although the term metaphysics generally makes sense in the way that it partially refers to things outisde of and beyond the natural sciences, this is not the origin of the term (as opposted to, say, meta-ethics, which refers to the nature of ethics itself). Instead, the term was used by later editors of Aristotle. Aristotle had written several books on matter and physics, and followed those volumes with work on ontology, and other broad subjects. These editors referred to them as â€Å"the books that came after the books on physics† or â€Å"metaphysics†. Aristotle himself refers to metaphysics as â€Å"first philosophy†. This term was also used by some later philosophers, such as Descartes, whose primary work on the subject of metaphysics is called Meditations on First Philosophy. * Branches of Metaphysics The main branches of metaphysics are: Ontology Cosmology Epistemology Epistemology is the area of philosophy that is concerned with knowledge. The main concerns of epistemology are the definition of knowledge, the sources of knowledge (innate ideas, experience, etc. , the process of acquiring knowledge and the limits of knowledge. Epistemology considers that knowledge can be obtained through experience and/or reason. It is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge and is also referred to as theory of knowledge. It questions what knowledge is and how it can be acquired, and the extent to which any given subject or entity can be known. Much of the debate in this field has focused on analyzing the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as truth, belief, and justification. * Defining Knowledge A primary concern of epistemology is the very definition of knowledge itself. The traditional definition, since Plato, is that knowledge is justified true belief, but recent evaluations of the concept have shown supposed counterexamples to this definition. In order to fully explore the nature of knowledge and how we come to know things, the various conceptions of what knowledge is must first be understood. * Sources of Knowledge The sources of knowledge must also be considered. Perception, reason, memory, testimony, introspection and innate ideas are all supposed sources of knowledge. Are they equally reliable? * Scepticism There also seems to be reason to doubt each of these sources of knowledge. Could it be that all knowledge is fallible? If that is the case, do we really know anything? This is the central question to the problem of scepticism. Logic Logic has two meanings: first, it describes the use of valid reasoning where it is used in most intellectual activities, including philosophy and science, or, second, it describes the study of modes of reasoning (those which are valid, and those which are fallacious). It is primarily studied in he disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science. It examines general forms that arguments may take. In mathematics, it is the study of valid inferences within some formal language. Logic is also studied in argumentation theory. Logic was studied in several ancient civilizations, including India, China, Persia and Greece. In the West, logic was established as a formal discipline by Aristotle, who gav e it a fundamental place in philosophy. The study of logic was part of the classical trivium, which also included grammar and rhetoric. In the East, logic was developed by Buddhists and Jainists. Logic is often divided into three parts, inductive reasoning, abductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning. Aesthetics Aesthetics (also spelled ? sthetics) is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, culture and nature. More specific aesthetic theory, often with practical implications, relating to a particular branch of the arts is divided into areas of aesthetics such as art theory, literary theory, film theory and music theory. â€Å"Beauty is in the eye of the beholder† There are two basic standings on the nature of beauty: objective and subjective judgement. Subjective judgement of beauty suggests that beauty is not t he same to everyone — that which aesthetically pleases the observer is beautiful (to the observer). Alternatively, those partial to the objective description of beauty try to measaure it. They suggest that certain properties of an object create an inherent beauty — such as symmetry and balance. Both Plato and Aristotle supported the objective judgement. Some, such as Immanuel Kant, took a middle path, holding that beauty is of a subjective nature, but there are qualities of beauty which have universal validity. * Classical and Modern Aesthetics The classical concepts behind aesthetics saw beauty in nature, and that art should mimic those qualities found in nature. Aristotles Poetics describes this idea, which he develops from Platos teachings. Modern aesthetic ideas, including those of Kant, stress the creative and symbolic side of art — that nature does not always have to guide art for it to be beautiful. Ethics Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term comes from the Greek word ethos, which means character. Ethics is a complement to Aesthetics in the philosophy field of Axiology. In philosophy, ethics studies the moral behavior in humans and how one should act. Ethics may be divided into four major areas of study: Meta-ethics, about the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions and how their truth values (if any) may be determined; Normative ethics, about the practical means of determining a moral course of action; Applied ethics, about how moral outcomes can be achieved in specific situations; Descriptive ethics, also known as comparative ethics, is the study of peoples beliefs about morality; Ethics seeks to resolve questions dealing with human morality—concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime. Political philosophy Political philosophy is the study of such topics as politics, liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what they are, why (or even if) they are needed, what, if anything, makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it should take and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever. In a vernacular sense, the term political philosophy often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about politics that does not necessarily belong to the technical discipline of philosophy. In short, political philosophy is the activity, as with all philosophy, whereby the conceptual apparatus behind such concepts as aforementioned are analyzed, in their history, intent, evolution and the like. Social philosophy Social philosophy is the philosophical study of questions about social behavior (typically, of humans). Social philosophy addresses a wide range of subjects, from individual meanings to legitimacy of laws, from the social contract to criteria for revolution, from the functions of everyday actions to the effects of science on culture, from changes in human demographics to the collective order of a wasps nest.

Interpreting the Constitution Essay -- essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When the Federalist party was organized in 1791, those people who favored a strong central government and a loose constitutional interpretation coagulated and followed the ideals of men such as Alexander Hamilton. The first opposition political party in the United States was the Republican party, which held power, nationally, between 1801 and 1825. Those who were in favor of states rights and a strict construction of the constitution fell under the leadership of Thomas Jefferson. These Jeffersonian republicans, also known as anti-federalists, believed in strict adherence to the writings of the constitution. They wanted state’s rights and individual rights, which they believed could only be granted under strict construction of the constitution. Thomas Jefferson, the third president, and James Madison, his successor, were close friends and lifelong political associates. Long regarded as advocates for liberty, Jefferson and Madison believed in the principles of government and sought to restore the spirit of the revolution of 1776. These republicans spoke out against anti-monarchial attitudes and opposed the aristocratic and elitist attitudes of the federalists (Peterson, 1975). A weaker central government by the people was the goal of the republican party. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, were two presidents who believed in the theory of the republican party, but due to circumstances within the parties and the increasing conflicts between Britain and France abroad, they found it increasingly difficult to act in a manner which coincided with their republican beliefs and at times had to reconcile their actions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jefferson’s victory in the presidential election is notable because this was the first transfer of national authority from political group to another that was accomplished by peaceful and strictly constitutional means. He began his presidency with a plea for reconciliation and described his election as a recovery of the original intentions of the American Revolution (Ellis, 2000). In his true ideology, Jefferson said that a republic did not require a powerful central government to flourish. In fact, he felt that the health of the nation was inversely proportional to the power of the federal government. ******In Document A, Jefferson writes of the preservation of the constitution and the princ... ... 1801 to 1807, Jeffersons policies initially reflected these Republican priorities, which meant decreasing the power of the federal government and the army and navy, and ending federal taxation as well as placing the national debt on the road to extinction. By 1807, circumstances dictated that Jefferson take some actions which seemed to contradict his ideals. From 1808 to 1817, threats to the United States’s strength as a nation and domestic and political struggles, forced James Madison to also veer away from the ideology that he initially preached. Both men exhibited a conflict between idealogy and practice of that idealogy. Bibliography 1. Ellis, Joseph. J, American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson. New York: Vintage Books, 1996. 2. Ellis, Joseph. J; Maier, Pauline, et al. Thomas Jefferson: Genius of Liberty. New York: Viking Studio, 2000. 3. Ketcham, Ralph. James Madison; a Biography. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990. 4. Peterson, Merrill, D. The Portable Thomas Jefferson. New York: Penguin Books, 1975. 5. Rutland, Robert A.,ed. James Madison and the American Nation, 1751-1836: An Encyclopedia. New York: Random House, 1994

Why I Want To Become An Engineer

Each and everyone of us had our own particular desire and I believed that has been develop since childhood. Ever since I was a kid, I was amazed by the creation of the skyscrapers and outrageously styled buildings. I have always appreciated the large structures and buildings which have surrounded me and I have always had respect for the people who have been involved with the design and constructions of these buildings on such a large scale.I kept wondering how people could construct such an attractive and difficult creations. As I entered high school, my interests further expanded when I took studies in civil engineering and engineering drawing classes as it explain more about buildings. I know that to become a Civil Engineer I have to work very hard in college and get very good grades. Even though my SPM result was not that good but I was determined to redeem it.I’m working hard to improve my grades in matriculation and I believe if someone in your company that have this kind of attitude to look for continous improvement to some extent it can be beneficial to your company. On my behalf, I think I deserve this scholarship because I am very hard working person. I put so much effort in anything I choose to do, or any task according to me. My goals in life are often high. I am a goal getter, so I will do anything to achieve my goals.I think that the drive I have to succeed, and to express knowledge into the life of the ones coming behind me is one of many reasons why I deserve this scholarship. Besides, my parent is the middle class salary earner so by having this scholarship I can ease their burden. Lastly , I have think that civil engineering is an ideal field for me. I believe that I have the personal attributes and intelligence required to be a civil engineer. I also believe that I possess the work habits and drive to be a successful engineer. This is why I have chosen to pursue this as a career.

How US Foreign Aid is Used in Foreign Policy

US foreign aid is an essential part of American foreign policy. The U.S. extends it to developing nations and for military or disaster assistance. The United States has used foreign aid since 1946. With annual expenditures in the billions of dollars, it is also one of the most controversial elements of American foreign policy. Background of American Foreign Aid Western allies learned the lesson of foreign aid after World War I. Defeated Germany received no help restructuring its government and economy after the war. In an unstable political climate, Nazism grew in the 1920s to challenge the Weimar Republic, Germanys legitimate government, and ultimately replace it. Of course, World War II was the result. After World War II, America feared Soviet communism would creep into destabilized, war-torn regions as Nazism had done earlier. To counter that, the United States immediately pumped $12 billion dollars into Europe. Congress then passed the European Recovery Plan (ERP), more commonly known as the Marshall Plan, named after Secretary of State George C. Marshall. The plan, which would distribute another $13 billion over the next five years, was the economic arm of President Harry Trumans plan to combat the spread of communism. The United States continued to use foreign aid throughout the Cold War as a way to keep nations out of the communist Soviet Unions sphere of influence. It has also regularly disbursed humanitarian foreign aid in the wake of disasters. Types of Foreign Aid The United States divides foreign aid into three categories: military and security assistance (25 percent of yearly expenditures), disaster and humanitarian relief (15 percent), and economic development assistance (60 percent). The United States Army Security Assistance Command (USASAC) manages military and security elements of foreign aid. Such aid includes military instruction and training. USASAC also manages the sales of military equipment to eligible foreign nations. According to the USASAC, it now manages 4,000 foreign military sales cases worth an estimated $69 billion. The Office of Foreign Disaster Administration handles disaster and humanitarian aid cases. Disbursements vary annually with the number and nature of global crises. In 2003, United States disaster aid reached a 30-year peak with $3.83 billion in aid. That amount included relief resulting from Americas March 2003 invasion of Iraq. USAID administers economic development aid. Assistance includes infrastructure construction, small-enterprise loans, technical assistance, and budget support for developing nations. Top Foreign Aid Recipients U.S. Census reports for 2008 indicate the top five recipients of American foreign aid that year were: Afghanistan, $8.8 billion ($2.8 billion economic, $6 billion military)Iraq, $7.4 billion ($3.1 billion economic, $4.3 billion military)Israel, $2.4 billion ($44 million economic, $2.3 billion military)Egypt, $1.4 billion ($201 million economic, $1.2 billion military)Russia, $1.2 billion (all of it economic aid) Israel and Egypt have usually topped the recipient list. Americas wars in Afghanistan and Iraq and its efforts to rebuild those areas while countering terrorism have put those countries at the top of the list. Criticism of American Foreign Aid Critics of American foreign aid programs claim that they do little good. They are quick to note that while economic aid is intended for developing countries, Egypt and Israel certainly do not fit that category. Opponents also argue that American foreign aid is not about development, but rather propping up leaders who comply with Americas wishes, regardless of their leadership abilities. They charge that American foreign aid, especially military aid, simply props up third-rate leaders who are willing to follow Americas wishes. Hosni Mubarak, ousted from the Egyptian presidency in February 2011, is an example. He followed through on his predecessor Anwar Sadats normalization of relations with Israel, but he did little good for Egypt. Recipients of foreign military aid have also turned against the United States in the past. Osama bin Laden, who used American aid to fight Soviets in Afghanistan in the 1980s, is a prime example. Other critics maintain that American foreign aid merely ties truly developing nations to the United States and does not enable them to stand on their own. Rather, they argue, promoting free enterprise within and free trade with those countries would serve them better.